The fourth bond is to another carbon atom (or H in the case of formic acid). Since carboxylic acids have a carbonyl group and an alcohol group they share some
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Principles of Drug Action 1, Spring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 1 1Carboxylic Acid Structure and Chemistry: Part 1 Jack DeRuiterI. IntroductionCarboxylic acids are hydrocarbon derivatives containing a carboxyl (COOH) moiety. Recall that carbon has four valence electrons and therefore requires four electrons or bonds to complete its octet. Based on this valence and bonding order, carbon forms four bonds in its neutral state, and these may be four single bonds or combinations of single and multiple bonds. Oxygen has six valence electrons and therefore requires two electrons or bonds to complete its octet and these may be single or double (pi) bonds. In the carboxylic acid functional group, carbon forms a double bond to one oxygen atom forming a carbonyl moiety, a single bond to another oxygen forming a hydroxyl group. The fourth bond is to another carbon atom (or H in the case of formic acid).Since carboxylic acids have a carbonyl group and an alcohol group they share some basic physico-chemical properties with aldehydes, ketones and alcohols. The combination of these moieties, however, results in unique chemical properties, the most notable of which is acidity. II. Carboxylic Acid Solubility and Hydrogen Bonding The carboxylic acid moiety is considered to be a highly polar organic functional group. This polarity results from the presence of a strongly polarized carbonyl (C=O) group and hydroxyl (O-H) group. Recall that oxygen is a relatively electronegative atom and when covalently bound to carbon and particularly hydrogen, a strong permanent dipole is created. In the case of carboxylic acids, the O-H group is even more strongly polarized than the O-H group of alcohols due to the presence of the adjacent carbonyl moiety. These structural features not only enhance dipole strength, but also are responsible for the acidity of these compounds as discussed later in this tutorial. Carboxylic Acid CCOOH+++2[ ] ..HOCCThe dipolar nature of acids ..ROOH..
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Principles of Drug Action 1, Spring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 1 2The dipoles present in carboxylic acids allow these compounds to participate in energetically favorable hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) interactions with like molecules and water, functioning as both a H-bond donor and acceptor as shown below: The total energy of H-bonding interactions for carboxylic acids is greater than that observed for other organic compounds containing OH and/or C=O dipoles such as amines, alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, amides and isosteric compounds. Carboxylic acids have a greater number of dipoles and stronger dipoles than these other organic compounds, and thus can form more and stronger H-bonds with other substances capable of H-bonding interactions. The dipolar nature of these other organic functional groups is discussed in more detail in the appropriate Tutorials: The energy associated with the dipoles present in carboxylic acids is directly reflected by physicochemical properties such as boiling points and water solubility. As indicated in the table below, carboxylic acids have relatively high boiling points. This is due to the high degree of relatively high energy intermolecular H-bonding interactions between acid molecules as shown in an earlier figure above. And, as is observed with other organic compounds, boiling points increase (and water solubility decreases) as the hydrocarbon length increases within a series, due to increased non-polar interactions (van der Waals interactions) between molecules. H-Bonding with Water OHHROOHOHHOHHOHHIntermolecular H-Bonding ROOHROOHAmides: C=O dipole + C-N dipole C=O dipole + C-O dipole Esters Ketones: Single C=O dipole Single C=O dipole Aldehydes: Phenols:Single OH dipole Single OH dipoleAlcohols:RNOR’HROOR’RR’ ORHOOHROH
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Principles of Drug Action 1, Spring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 1 3Boiling Points and Solubilities of Carboxylic Acids: RCOOHR =Boiling Point (oC)Water Solubility (g/100 mL) Ethanol Solubility (g/100 mL) H101 CH3-118 CH3CH2-141 CH3CH2CH2-164 CH3CH2CH2CH2-1873.7Soluble CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-2051.0Soluble C6H5-2500.34Soluble CH3(CH 2)8-0.015Soluble CH3(CH 2)10-Insoluble100 CH3(CH 2)12-InsolubleSoluble CH3(CH 2)16-Insoluble5.0 As a result of the high degree of intermolecular association between acids, these compounds have significantly higher boiling points than corresponding non-polar hydrocarbons of the alkane, alkene, alkyne and aromatic classes. They also have higher boiling points than other compounds with weaker or fewer dipoles such as amines, alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, amides and isosteric compounds of corresponding hydrocarbon structure (similar number of carbon atoms). This is illustrated in the figure below by comparison of the relative boiling points: Also, as a result of the ability to form “solubilizing” H-bonding interactions with water and other polar, protic solvents, carboxylic acids display relatively high water solubilities compared to comparable organic compounds. For example, butyric acid is infinitely “soluble” in water, while the solubility of the alcohol 1-butanol in water is 7.9 g/100 mL: Aldehyde: BP = 178 Aniline: BP = 184 Phenol: BP = 182 Acid: BP = 250 OHNH2OHOOHCH3CH2CH2CH2OHHOHHOHHOH CH 3CH2CH2COOHHOHHOHHOHButyric Acid 1-Butanol
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Principles of Drug Action 1, Spring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 1 4It is important to note that the water solubility of carboxylic acids and other organic compounds with dipolar functionality may be a function of more than dipolar interactions alone. For example, carboxylic acids and other polar organic compounds may tautomerize under certain conditions (see Aldehyde and Ketone Tutorial) or ionize in aqueous solutions of appropriate pH (see Amine Tutorial) and this may result in higher water solubility than would be predicted based on the number and nature of dipoles alone present in the parent structure!It is also important to appreciate the solubility of carboxylic acids in solvents other than water. Consider the data provided in the table above for acid solubility in ethanol. Note that carboxylic acids of greater than 6 carbon atoms are minimally (1 g/100 mL) soluble to insoluble in water. However, a protic organic solvent, such as ethanol, can dissolve carboxylic acids containing more than ten carbon atoms. This is a result of ethanol’s ability to both H-bond with the polar carboxyl group, and participate in van der Waals interactions with the non-polar hydrocarbon functionality present in these compounds as illustrated below. Thus ethanol (and other alcohols and similar solvents) can dissolve considerably “larger” carboxylic acids than water: III. Carboxylic Acid Acidity:The most important chemical property of carboxylic acids in terms of drug chemistry is their acidic nature. Traditionally the term “acid” is reserved for those compounds that transfer protons measurably to water. The mineral acids (HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4, H3PO4) are defined as “strong acids” because they undergo complete dissociation, donating a proton to water to form the hydronium ion. On the other hand, simple hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics) and even many polar organic compounds such as alcohols, esters, amides, aldehydes and ketones, generally are considered to be “non- acidic” because they do not dissociate in water. These compounds may ionize in the presence of sufficiently strong bases, but they do not ionize appreciably in water. Carboxylic acids are referred to as “weak acids” because they partially dissociate in water. H-Bonding Interactions van der Waals Interactions CH2CH3OHCH2CH3OHHOCH3CH2CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOHHOCH2CH3HOCH3CH2CH2CH3OH
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Principles of Drug Action 1, Spring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 1 5The ability of carboxylic acids to ionize and behave as acids is a direct function of the electronic properties and bonding order of the atoms that make up the carboxyl (COOH) moiety. Recall that this functional group consists of a carbonyl group that has an electron deficient carbon atom due to pi bonding (double bond) to an electronegative oxygen. This carbonyl carbon also is directly linked to, and in conjugation with, a second electronegative oxygen atom bearing a hydrogen atom. This electronic arrangement allows for loss of a proton and ionization because electron density is “pulled” from the hydroxyl hydrogen through the conjugated carboxyl group, and the charge formed upon ionization (in the conjugate base) is stabilized by resonance delocalization. The stabilization of the conjugate base (carboxylate) by resonance is shown below and probably best represented by the “composite” resonance structure. Largely due to this stabilization, acids are “somewhat acidic” with pKas typically ranging form 3 to 5: As suggested in the beginning of this section, “acidity” can be regarded as a relative term, since any substance bearing a hydrogen substituent can, in theory, dissociate or donate a proton is the presence of a sufficiently strong base. Thus to more fully appreciate the “relative acidity” of carboxylic acids it may be beneficial to compare these compounds to other organic functional groups covered in this set of tutorials such as alcohols, phenols, amides and sulfonamides. Alcohols are similar to carboxylic acids in that they contain an OH group. In alcohols ionization of the OH group yields an alkoxide (anion) as the conjugate base where the oxygen alone bears the negative charge because resonance delocalization is not possible; the carbon adjacent to the alkoxide oxygen is sp3 hybridized. Since the charge in alkoxide base is not stabilized to the same degree as the CH 3OOHHClCl-H3O++CH3OO-H3O++CH3CH2OHCH3CH2O-+H3O+”Strong Acid” Complete Dissociation “Weak Acid” Partial Dissociation “Non-Acid” No Dissociation RCOOHElectron withdrawal of the conjugated carboxyl group in acids RCOO-RCOO-Resonance stabilization of the conjugate base ORCO”Composite “Resonance Structure
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Principles of Drug Action 1, Spring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 1 6conjugate base formed from carboxylic acids (where the charge is delocalized by resonance), it is less likely to form. Thus alcohols are less acidic than carboxylic acids. These properties are demonstrated in the following figure. Phenols are weak acids since the phenyl ring linked to an alcohol functionality exerts a electron withdrawing effect further polarizing this function group, and conjugate base formation (phenoxide) is promoted by aromatic ring associated resonance stabilization of the resultant anion (see figure above and Alcohol Tutorial). However, phenols are generally less acidic than carboxylic acids based on the electronic nature of atoms over which the charge of the conjugate base is delocalized. In the case of carboxylic acids, the resultant charge is delocalized over two electronegative oxygen atoms and one electroneutral carbon atom. In the case of phenols the charge of the conjugate base is delocalized over only one electronegative oxygen atom and six electroneutral carbons. This is discussed in more detail in the “Alcohol Tutorial”. Primary and secondary amides are similar to carboxylic acids in that they have a proton attached to a “heteroatom”, and the charge formed from loss of this proton (ionization to yield the conjugate base formation) could be stabilized by resonance as shown in the figure below. Yet amides are considered to be relatively “non-acidic. This difference results from the electron nature of the atoms over which the charge of the conjugate base is distributed. In carboxylic acids the charge forms over an electronegative oxygen and delocalized over two oxygen atoms and the central carbon atom. In amides the charge forms on a less electronegative nitrogen atom, and is distributed over an oxygen, a nitrogen and the central carbon atom. Since oxygen is significantly more electronegative than nitrogen, it is better able to stabilize negative charge. Thus, the greater number of oxygen atoms in carboxylic acids allows for greater stabilization of the conjugate base in acids versus amides. This is discussed in more detail in the “Amide Tutorial”: ROOHROHROO.RO(-)(-) ROO(-) Acids: pKa 3-5 Alcohol: pKa > 14 Alkoxide Conjugate Base Resonance Stabilized Carboxylate Conjugate Bas e(-)OH.OO(-)OO.(-)(-)Phenol Resonance stabilization of the phenoxide conjugate base 246
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Principles of Drug Action 1, Spring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 1 8If electron donating groups (+I) decrease acidity, then it is reasonable to expect that electron withdrawing groups by induction (-I groups) attached to the carboxyl group would enhance acidity. And this is indeed the case. Consider the examples of acetic acid, chloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid shown below. The only difference between these three acids is the degree of chloro group substitution. Chlorine atoms are electronegative (three pairs of non-bonded electrons in their valence shell) and thus have an -I effect. Thus they help stabilize the negative charge of the conjugate base formed upon the ionization of an acid by electron withdrawal through carbon-carbon bonds. Note the substantially higher acidity (nearly 100-fold) of chloroacetic acid relative to acetic acid as indicated by pKa values. Furthermore, the greater the number of Cl atoms present, the greater the total -I effect and the greater the ease of ionization (lower pKa). Again, note that the electronic effect in this example is being “induced” through single bonds; a saturated (sp3 hybridized) carbon in this case. Also note that the strength of the inductive effect produced by a particular atom or functional group is dependent on it’s position within the carboxylic acid structure. For example, the further from the site of ionization, the lower the inductive effect. This is illustrated in the example below where the acid with the chlorine atom positioned on a carbon atom nearer the reaction site (OH) is more acidic that the acid where the chlorine atom is positioned further away: Less acidic Cl “further” from the reaction site Cl “closer” to the reaction site More acidic CCHClOOHHHHCCHHOOHHClHAromatic ring substituents also influence the acidity of carboxylic acids in the manner similar to that described above. For example, benzoic acid is somewhat more acidic (lower pKa) than acetic acid, because it is capable of withdrawing electron density by induction. Furthermore, benzoic acids with electron withdrawing groups (i.e. NO 2) areeven “more acidic” (lower pKa) than benzoic acid. Again, this is due to the ability of these systems to withdraw electron density, primarily by inductive mechanisms: HC HHOOHCHHOOHClCOOH ClClClAcetic acid Chloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid pKa = 4.76 pKa = 2.87 pKa = 0.64
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Principles of Drug Action 1, Spring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 1 9CH3OOHOOHOOHO2NAcetic acid: pKa 4.76 Benzoic acid: pKa 4.21 4-Nitrobenzoic acid: pKa 3.44 It is important to realize that aromatic substituents DO NOT stabilize carboxylate base charge by resonance effects! This is because that the charge formed upon ionization of an acid is not “conjugated” with the aromatic system. Because of the basic atomic structure of carboxylic acids, the charge generated upon ionization is “insulated” from the aromatic ring by the presence of two single bonds as shown below. Thus aromatic rings, and substituents on aromatic rings, have only a modest effect on carboxylic acid acidity: This is very different from phenols (see “Phenol Tutorial”) where the negative charge formed in the conjugate base could be delocalized into the aromatic ring, and properly positioned substituents could dramatically enhance acidity. In the case of phenols the charge formed on an atom (oxygen) directly conjugated to the aromatic ring. This is illustrated by the figure below: However, acids are generally more acidic than their corresponding phenols due to the delocalization of negative charge by resonance over two adjacent electronegative oxygen atoms in the case of acids (see discussion above).Another interesting example of the influence of structure on relative acidity is illustrated by the dicarboxylic acids. Consider the structures of the four diacids listed in the table below and their pKa values:OOHOOOOH O2NOOO2NpKa 3.44 O O2NHOO2NONOOpKa 7.1
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Principles of Drug Action 1, Spring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 1 10DiacidpKa 1pKa 21.194.21 1.195.7 4.25.6 4.45.4 The first pKa for oxalic and malonic acid is significantly lower than a typical monocarboxylic acid, indicating that these compounds form a mono-anion more readily. The enhanced ease of ionization of one carboxyl group in these two diacids results from the ability of the fiotherfl adjacent acid group to stabilize the negative charge of the conjugate base by hydrogen bonding as shown in the figure below. Note also that the second pKa of these acids is significantly higher than a typical mono carboxylic acid. This is because that fisecondfl acid proton is held more tightly by the mono-ionized complex via intramolecular hydrogen bonding: HOOOOHOxalic Acid OOHHOOCH2Malonic Acid OOHHOOCH2CH2Succinic Acid OOHHOOCH2CH2CH2Glutaric OOOHOHOOOOHOOOOHpKa 1.19 OOOOpKa 4.21
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Principles of Drug Action 1, Spring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 1 11The same pKa trends are not observed with the other two dicarboxylic acids in the table above, succinic acid and glutaric acid. The first pKa value (about 4) for these dicarboxylic acids is higher than that of oxalic or malonic acid (about 1,2) and comparable to typical mono-carboxylic acids. In these compounds the two carboxylic acid groups are separated by more distance in three dimensional space so that the fisecond acidfl group cannot form an intramolecular hydrogen bond to stabilize the negative charge in the mono-anionic form. Also, the due to the lack of hydrogen bonding and the greater distance of the two acids, the pKa of the fisecondfl ionization is only an order of magnitude higher (about 5.5) than the fifirstfl acid group. Go to “Carboxylic Acid” Tutorial Part 2 OOH HO OCH2CH2CH2OOOOCH2CH2CH2H
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